Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Yemen
No Advancement
In 2023, Yemen made no advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. There is evidence of recruitment and use of children in hostilities by government and government-affiliated armed forces in contravention of Yemeni law. Stronger enforcement measures of the government’s prohibition on child recruitment are needed to ensure children are not recruited and used by government and government affiliated forces. Furthermore, the government failed to make efforts to address discrimination in schools against children from the Muhamasheen (“marginalized”) community, leading to their increased vulnerability to child labor, and the government did not conduct any labor inspections or enforce criminal labor laws due to the government's lack of budgetary resources. Moreover, research found no evidence of a government policy on worst forms of child labor outside of child soldiering. In areas outside of government control, non-state armed groups such as the Houthis deliberately recruit children for use in combat and support roles in their armed forces. The Houthis have also subjected children to military training and indoctrination as part of “summer camps,” increasing their vulnerability to being recruited as child soldiers.
| Children | Age | Percent of Population |
|---|---|---|
| Working | 5 to 14 | 12.5% (Unavailable) |
| Boys | 15.8% | |
| Girls | 8.8% | |
| Urban | 4.8% | |
| Rural | 15.4% | |
| Hazardous Work by Children | 15 to 17 | 30.3% (Unavailable) |
| Boys | 44.3% | |
| Girls | 15.4% | |
| Urban | 19.7% | |
| Rural | 34.5% | |
| Attending School | 5 to 14 | 67.2% |
| Combining Work and School | 7 to 14 | 11.9% |
| Sectory/Industry | Percent of Population |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | 70% (Unavailable) |
| Industry | 2.2% (Unavailable) |
| Services | 27.8% (Unavailable) |
| Sector/Industry | Activity |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Farming† and fishing.† |
| Industry | Construction,† carpentry,† and working in factories and welding† workshops. |
| Services | Voluntarily recruited children used in hostilities by state armed groups. Street work, including selling items, and begging. Selling goods in stores, transporting goods, and working in bakeries. Working in auto repair, mechanic shops,† car washes, and collecting fares in taxis. |
| Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ | Recruitment and use of children by state and non-state armed groups for use in armed conflict and use in illicit activities, including in the trafficking of drugs. Commercial sexual exploitation. Forced labor, including domestic work, begging, and working in small shops. |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
Armed groups, especially the Houthis, but also government and pro-government militias, recruited and used child soldiers in combat and support roles in 2023. According to the UN, the Houthis recruited and used 59 children, while Yemeni Armed Forces (YAF) recruited and used 33 children. Pro-government militias recruited and used an additional 78 children in 2023. In areas under Houthi control, children are indoctrinated in schools and recruited into armed forces; these practices have been documented in 34 schools in 6 governorates. Additionally, children are indoctrinated and exposed to military training in "summer camps," organized by the Houthis. Boys recruited by the Houthis are often used in combat roles, and girls are used as recruiters, guards, and spies, and in other non-combat roles. Children are also used by the Houthis to transport drugs to the frontlines and neighboring countries.
Children at Higher Risk
Among the Muhamasheen ("marginalized") minority group, generally of African origin and estimated to number 3.5 million, illiteracy rates are over 50 percent for both boys and girls, and child labor in the form of begging is prevalent. Muhamasheen families have difficulty affording school supplies and identity documentation. This community also suffers from general poverty and severe societal discrimination. Muhamasheen boys are vulnerable to sexual violence by armed actors, particularly while they engage in child labor, even if they are not directly involved in armed conflict. Research did not discover any government efforts to address this discrimination.
Barriers to Education Access
Children in Yemen face significant barriers to education access due to limited government financial resources, lack of family income, the use of schools for military purposes, and attacks on schools by armed groups. In Houthi-controlled areas, obstacles include vandalization and destruction of schools, a lack of schools in many areas, lack of financial ability by families to pay for education, and Houthi recruitment of children for use in armed conflict. According to UNICEF, over 2 million boys and girls are not attending school due to poverty, conflict, and a lack of educational opportunities. Direct effects of the war, including the destruction of schools, have prevented children from attending classes. In addition, around 170,000 teachers in Houthi-controlled areas have not received salaries since 2016. Many families also continue to be unable to afford transportation costs to schools, and Yemen's multiple crises have pushed families further into poverty, making it increasingly difficult to access education. Many Muhamasheen children do not have birth certificates, which are required for enrollment in schools. They face harassment, bullying, and violence at school, and are dismissed from school or asked to clean the bathrooms; this treatment leads some to drop out of school.
| Standard | Age | Meets International Standards | Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Age for Work | 14 | ✓ | Articles 5 and 27 of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013; Articles 48 and 49 of the Labor Code |
| Minimum Age for Hazardous Work | 18 | ✓ | Article 7 of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013; Articles 49 and 154 of the Labor Code |
| Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children | ✓ | Articles 7, 8, and 15 of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013 | |
| Prohibition of Slavery, Debt Bondage, and Forced Labor | ✗ | Articles 6 and 26 of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013; Article 248 of the Penal Code | |
| Prohibition of Child Trafficking | ✗ | Articles 6 and 26 of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013 | |
| Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children | ✗ | Articles 147 and 163 of the Child Rights Law; Article 279 of the Penal Code; Articles 6 and 25 of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013 | |
| Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities | ✓ | Section 24 of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013; Articles 148 and 162 of the Child Rights Law | |
| Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment | 18 | ✓ | Article 149 of the Child Rights Law |
| Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military | N/A* | ||
| Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups | ✗ | Article 6(b) of Ministerial Order No. 11 of 2013 | |
| Compulsory Education Age | 15‡ | ✓ | Article 18 of the General Education Law |
| Free Public Education | ✓ | Article 87 of the Child Rights Law |
* Country has no conscription
‡ Age calculated based on available information
Although Article 248 of the Penal Code criminalizes buying, selling, and dealing in human beings, the legal framework does not appear to prohibit or provide punishments for forced labor. The law related to child trafficking is insufficient because it only provides criminal penalties for someone who has bought, sold, or dispensed of a child. The legal framework does not adequately prohibit using, procuring, or offering a child in pornography and pornographic performances, or using a child in prostitution. The minimum age for work is lower than the compulsory education age, which may encourage children to leave school before the completion of compulsory education.
| Organization/Agency | Role & Activities |
|---|
| Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor's (MOSAL) Child Labor Unit: Enforces child labor laws, conducts inspections, informs the Ministry of the Interior (MOI) of any violations, and refers children found during inspections to appropriate social services. |
| MOI: Enforces child labor laws. Police departments within MOI handle human trafficking investigations. |
| Overview of Enforcement Efforts | 2023 |
|---|---|
| Has a Labor Inspectorate | Yes |
| Able to Assess Civil Penalties | Unknown |
| Routinely Conducted Worksite Inspections | No |
| Unannounced Inspections Permitted | Unknown |
| Has a Complaint Mechanism | Unknown |
| Imposed Penalties for Child Labor Violations | No |
| Conducted Criminal Investigations for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | No |
| Imposed Penalties for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | No |
In 2023, labor inspectors conducted 0 worksite inspections, finding 0 child labor violations. The government also conducted 0 investigations into suspected cases of the worst forms of child labor, initiated 0 prosecutions, and convicted 0 perpetrators.
| Coordinating Body | Role & Activities |
|---|
| National Steering Committee to Combat Child Labor: Coordinates child labor issues in Yemen. Comprises representatives from MOSAL, other state agencies, ILO, and local NGOs. The National Steering Committee to Combat Child Labor was not active during the reporting period. |
| Policy | Description & Activities |
|---|
| Action Plan to End and Prevent the Recruitment of Children by the Yemeni Armed Forces: Ensures that national laws comply with international standards, prohibits the recruitment and use of children in armed forces, investigates allegations of violations, and facilitates UN access to monitor compliance. |
Research found no evidence that Yemen funded or participated in programs that include the goal of eliminating child labor.
| Area | Suggested Action |
|---|---|
| Legal Framework | Ratify the Palermo Protocol on Trafficking in Persons. |
| Ensure that the law criminally prohibits forced labor. | |
| Ensure that trafficking of children, including recruitment, harboring, transportation, transfer, and receipt, for purposes of forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation, are criminalized and that punishments are prescribed. | |
| Ensure that the law criminally prohibits the recruitment of children under age 18 into non-state armed groups. | |
| Ensure that the law adequately prohibits and provides punishments for using, procuring, or offering a child in pornography and pornographic performances, and using a child in prostitution. | |
| Raise the minimum age for work from age 14 to age 15 to align with the compulsory education age. | |
| Enforcement | Enforce laws prohibiting children under age 18 from joining the Yemeni Armed Forces. Ensure that any children under age 18 already in the Yemeni Armed Forces and pro-government militias do not engage in combat. |
| Ensure that the labor inspectorate has the capacity to enforce labor laws. | |
| Employ at least 195 labor inspectors to ensure adequate coverage of the labor force of approximately 7.8 million workers. | |
| Ensure that authorities enforce minimum age protections in all sectors in which the worst forms of child labor are prevalent, including in temporary employment, farming, and domestic work. | |
| Ensure that criminal law enforcement agencies enforce child labor laws and publish information on enforcement activities. | |
| Coordination | Ensure that the National Steering Committee to Combat Child Labor is active and able to carry out its intended mandates. |
| Government Policies | Adopt a policy that addresses all worst forms of child labor, including commercial sexual exploitation and child trafficking. |
| Social Programs | Implement programs to address the worst forms of child labor and expand programs to improve children’s equal access to education, particularly for Muhamasheen children . |
| Institute a rehabilitation and reintegration program for children engaged in armed conflict and children involved in other worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation and fishing. |
Yemen’s ongoing conflict and humanitarian crisis have severely impacted workers’ rights and the ability of trade unions to operate effectively. Freedom of association and collective bargaining protections also do not extend to day laborers, domestic servants, foreign workers, and other groups who together made up most of the workforce, including young workers 16–18, who are prohibited from joining a union without parental authorization. The lack of strong independent trade unions in the country hinders efforts to combat child labor and advocate for better working conditions.
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