Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports
Ethiopia
Moderate Advancement
In 2023, Ethiopia made moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor. The government ratified a Directive to Implement the Reintegration of Victim Migrant Returnees, Number 969/2023, which assigns responsibilities to institutions and includes procedures to follow for the reintegration of human trafficking survivors, including children. The government also approved a new Education and Training Policy, which provides for free universal compulsory education from pre-school through the 12th grade. In addition, the government inspected over 140 recruitment agencies for child trafficking, resulting in the issuance of 178 sanctions and 72 revoked licenses. Regional education bureaus also collaborated with the United Nations Children's Fund and non-governmental organizations to provide formal and non-formal education and educational materials to 184,993 children in emergency-affected regions. Despite these efforts, Ethiopia's laws do not meet international standards, because they do not criminalize the use of a child for commercial sexual exploitation, and they allow children ages 15 and 16 to engage in hazardous work. In addition, hazardous work protections do not extend to traditional weaving, an area of work in which there is evidence that children use dangerous machinery, equipment, and tools. Ethiopian law also does not include free basic education or a compulsory age for the completion of education, leaving children vulnerable to the worst forms of child labor. Also, social programs to address child labor do not sufficiently target sectors with high incidences of child labor, including agriculture and domestic work. Finally, a boy was detained by the Ethiopian National Defense Forces for alleged association with armed groups; the United Nations Report on Children in Armed Conflict has verified that the captive child was subsequently killed.
| Children | Age | Percent of Population |
|---|---|---|
| Working | 5 to 14 | 24.3% (6,761,640) |
| Boys | 26.6% | |
| Girls | 22.0% | |
| Urban | 6.4% | |
| Rural | 27.7% | |
| Hazardous Work by Children | 15 to 17 | 42.6% (2,841,622) |
| Boys | 46.7% | |
| Girls | 38.4% | |
| Urban | 20.2% | |
| Rural | 48.1% | |
| Attending School | 5 to 14 | 56.6% |
| Combining Work and School | 7 to 14 | 16.3% |
| Sector/Industry | Percent of Population |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | 76.3% |
| Industry | 2.1% |
| Services | 21.6% |
| Sector/Industry | Activity |
|---|---|
| Agriculture | Planting and harvesting khat (stimulant plant), herding cattle, and fishing. |
| Industry | Mining† gold and quarrying.† Producing handicrafts, including traditional handwoven textiles. |
| Services | Domestic work and unpaid household services, including carrying heavy loads† of water and firewood. Street work, including shoe shining, weight measurement, assisting taxi drivers, vending, portering, and begging. |
| Categorical Worst Forms of Child Labor‡ | Commercial sexual exploitation, sometimes as a result of human trafficking. Forced labor in domestic work, agriculture, forced begging, street vending, construction, and traditional weaving. |
† Determined by national law or regulation as hazardous and, as such, relevant to Article 3(d) of ILO C. 182.
‡ Child labor understood as the worst forms of child labor per se under Article 3(a)–(c) of ILO C. 182.
Children at Higher Risk
An estimated 200,000 children are living and working in the streets of Ethiopia, with a further 1 million children at risk of being on the street. Children living on the street are at significant risk of exploitation and abuse and are sometimes recruited by private businesses for child labor and criminal groups to commit illegal activities. Further, ongoing internal armed conflict, drought, and flooding has created an estimated 2.73 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) and an additional 924,000 refugees throughout the country in 2023, including children. Internally displaced children are at higher risk of engaging in child labor due to a lack of educational and economic opportunities.
Barriers to Education Access
Internal armed conflict or natural disasters prevent an estimated 3.6 million children from obtaining an education in Ethiopia. Research indicates that approximately 9,382 schools have been partially or entirely damaged, and 4,262 schools have been forced to close due to these crises. Specifically, children in the Amhara, Afar, Tigray, and Oromia regions face abduction, kidnapping, sexual violence, unexploded military munitions, and recruitment by armed groups on their way to and from school. The United Nations verified 12 armed attacks on schools as well as military appropriation of educational facilities by the Ethiopian National Defense Forces and the Tigrayan forces. In addition, children throughout the country face other barriers to education, including the requirement to pay for uniforms and supplies, a lack of teachers, gender-based violence on the way to and from school, lack of sanitary facilities for menstruation, long distances to schools, and corporal punishment in schools. While students with disabilities are not denied access to education, they do face additional barriers, including insufficient infrastructure and lack of trained teachers and professionals to support them. Finally, language barriers present obstacles for children, especially IDP children, who may not speak the local languages.
| Standard | Age | Meets International Standards | Legislation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum Age for Work | 15 | ✓ | Articles 4.1, 89.1, 89.2, 90, and 186(e) of the Labor Proclamation 1156/2019 |
| Minimum Age for Hazardous Work | 15 | ✗ | Article 36.1(d) of the Constitution; Article 89 of the Labor Proclamation 1156/2019 |
| Identification of Hazardous Occupations or Activities Prohibited for Children | ✓ | Articles 89.3, 89.4, and 186.1 of the Labor Proclamation 1156/2019; Directive on the Restating of Activities Prohibited for Young Workers No. 813/2021 | |
| Prohibition of Slavery, Debt Bondage, and Forced Labor | ✓ | Article 18.3 of the Constitution; Articles 596, 597, and 637 of the Criminal Code; Articles 2–4 and 6 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 | |
| Prohibition of Child Trafficking | ✓ | Article 18.2 of the Constitution; Articles 597 and 635–637 of the Criminal Code; Articles 3.1–3.5 and 4.1 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 | |
| Prohibition of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children | ✗ | Articles 634–636 of the Criminal Code; Articles 3.1–3.5 and 4.1 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 | |
| Prohibition of Using Children in Illicit Activities | ✓ | Article 525 of the Criminal Code; Articles 3.1–3.5 and 4.1 of the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Persons Proclamation No. 1178-2020 | |
| Minimum Age for Voluntary State Military Recruitment | 18‡ | ✓ | Article 270 of the Criminal Code |
| Prohibition of Compulsory Recruitment of Children by (State) Military | N/A* | Article 270 (m) of the criminal law states Whoever, in time of war, armed conflict or occupation organizes, orders or engages in recruiting children who have not attained the age of eighteen years as members of defense forces to take part in armed conflict is punishable with rigorous imprisonment from five years to twenty-five years, or, in more serious cases, with life imprisonment or death. | |
| Prohibition of Military Recruitment by Non-state Armed Groups | ✗ | Articles 3.1, 3.2, and 4.1–4.3 of the Proclamation to Provide for the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants | |
| Compulsory Education Age | ✗ | ||
| Free Public Education | ✗ |
* Country has no conscription
‡ Age calculated based on available information
In May 2023, the government ratified the Victims of Trafficking Reintegration Directive No. 969/2023, which assigns responsibilities to institutions and includes the procedures that institutions should follow for the reintegration of human trafficking survivors. This directive lays out procedures for the repatriation and reintegration of children and families of Ethiopian nationality who are survivors of human trafficking. While Ethiopia has a hazardous work list, the types of hazardous work prohibited for children does not include traditional weaving, an area of work in which there is evidence that children use dangerous machinery, equipment, and tools. Moreover, Article 89.5 of the Labor Proclamation allows children aged 15 and up to engage in certain forms of hazardous work during a government-approved and inspected vocational training course. This contradicts ILO Convention 138, which prohibits hazardous work for all children under the age of 16. Lastly, while the Ministry of Education has a policy encouraging public funding of education, Ethiopian laws do not guarantee free public education or set a compulsory age for education.
| Organization/Agency | Role & Activities |
|---|
| Ministry of Labor and Skills (MOLS): Conducts labor inspections of formal worksites through its federal and regional Bureaus of Labor and Skills. Through its National Referral Mechanism, MOLS coordinates the referral of survivors to social services providers. In 2023, MOLS conducted a full internal audit of the Bureau of Labor and Industry, Economy, and Development's supervision of recruitment agencies, which serve as a major channel for internal and international child trafficking in Ethiopia. Monitoring inspections were also made at over 140 recruitment agencies, which led to 178 sanctions and 72 licenses revoked. |
| Criminal Enforcement Agencies: The Ethiopian Ministry of Justice prosecutes criminal violations of child labor laws, including through its Special Investigative Unit for Women and Children. The Ethiopian Federal Police Commission also enforces criminal laws against the worst forms of child labor, including child trafficking and the commercial sexual exploitation of children. It addresses child trafficking and assists vulnerable children through its Special Child Protection Units in Addis Ababa. Cases are referred to the Ministry of Women and Social Affairs, which develops and implements programs to protect vulnerable children, maintains rehabilitation centers, and coordinates foster families for children rescued from the worst forms of child labor. |
| Overview of Enforcement Efforts | 2023 |
|---|---|
| Has a Labor Inspectorate | Yes |
| Able to Assess Civil Penalties | Yes |
| Routinely Conducted Worksite Inspections | Yes |
| Unannounced Inspections Permitted | Yes |
| Has a Complaint Mechanism | Yes |
| Imposed Penalties for Child Labor Violations | Unknown |
| Conducted Criminal Investigations for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | Yes |
| Imposed Penalties for Worst Forms of Child Labor Crimes | Unknown |
In 2023, 537 labor inspectors conducted 46,603 worksite inspections, finding 122 child labor violations. The government identified 102 suspected cases of the worst forms of child labor; however, it is unknown whether investigations were conducted, prosecutions were initiated, or perpetrators were convicted.
| Coordinating Body | Role & Activities |
|---|
| National Steering Committee on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: The committee develops action plans and coordinates activities to address the worst forms of child labor. In 2023, the committee met twice, and its working group met quarterly. |
| Policy | Description & Activities |
|---|
| National Action Plan to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor (2021–2025): Includes guidelines on child labor identification, withdrawal, reintegration, and education. Overseen by the National Steering Committee on the Worst Forms of Child Labor and created with input from government ministries, the ILO, the Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Unions, the Confederation of Ethiopian Employers Federation, and other NGOs. MOLS did not provide any update on the status of this national action plan for the reporting period. |
| Five-Year Strategic Plan for Migration Management (2021–2025): Aims to prevent and suppress trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants; supports safe, humane, and orderly migration; and supports efforts to reduce child labor as it occurs in the context of human trafficking and migration. In 2023, the government continued to carry out activities under this plan and partnered with the International Organization for Migration to conduct a midterm evaluation of the National Strategic Plan, with the final report expected to be presented in mid-May 2024. |
| Education and Training Policy 2023:† Promotes universal free, compulsory education from pre-K to 12th grade. This plan was approved in 2023. |
† The government approved the policy during the reporting period.
‡ The government had other policies that may have addressed child labor issues or had an impact on child labor.
| Program | Description & Activities |
|---|
| Freedom Fund: Works to reduce the prevalence of children in domestic work with cooperation from the Government of Ethiopia and the U.S. Department of State's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. In 2023, the project conducted outreach activities with over 6,500 employers, which resulted in improved treatment of children in domestic work. The project also set up referral systems in 2 bus stations and trained over 200 transport workers to detect cases of child trafficking. As a result, over 100 children were identified and referred to relevant services. In addition, over 550 child domestic workers received care and support at shelters, with 262 children successfully reunited with their families. Services provided included vocational training for 205 children, catch-up classes for 535 children at risk of domestic servitude, and training for 361 enforcement officials on how to protect child domestic workers and enforce the rule of law. |
| Multilateral Projects: The Ethiopia General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (2017–2025)† is a $583 million World Bank-funded program implemented by the Ministry of Education and development partners to improve education quality and access. In 2023, the project increased primary education enrollment rates and improved the girl-to-boy ratio in grade 8. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) funded initiatives, including Child-to-Child and Accelerated School Readiness programs, which extended educational opportunities to internally displaced children. In June 2023, Ethiopia and the World Bank signed a $400 million agreement to establish the Human Capital Operation, a program focused on providing nutrition and education in drought-affected areas and refugee-hosting communities, expected to impact 7 million Ethiopians and 800,000 refugees. UNICEF, the Swedish International Development Agency, and MOLS also jointly funded the Urban Productive Safety Net Program, which aims to address nutritional and educational outcomes in Amhara and Addis Ababa through cash transfers and linking participants to basic social services. In October 2023 alone, Regional Education Bureaus collaborated with UNICEF and NGO partners to provide over 68,000 children in emergency-affected regions with formal or non-formal education. Additionally, a total of 184,993 children benefitted from the provision of educational materials. |
For information about USDOL’s projects to address child labor around the world, visit https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/ilab-project-page-search
† Program is co-funded by the Government of Ethiopia.
‡ The government had other social programs that may have included the goal of eliminating or preventing child labor.
| Area | Suggested Action |
|---|---|
| Legal Framework | Criminally prohibit the use of a child for commercial sexual exploitation. |
| Raise the minimum age at which children may perform dangerous tasks during vocational training to age 16, in line with ILO Convention 138. | |
| Prohibit all types of hazardous work for children that require the use of dangerous machinery, equipment, and tools—including traditional weaving—in compliance with ILO Convention 138. | |
| Criminally prohibit the recruitment of children under age 18 by non-state armed groups. | |
| Establish by law free basic education. | |
| Establish by law a compulsory education age that extends to the minimum age for employment of 15 years. | |
| Enforcement | Ensure that children associated with armed groups are referred to social services providers and cease the practice of detaining children as adults. |
| Increase the number of labor inspectors from 537 to 964 to ensure adequate coverage of the labor force of approximately 38.6 million workers. | |
| Provide labor inspectors sufficient resources to conduct inspections in all sectors, including offices, transportation, fuel, personal protective clothing, and equipment for measuring hazardous conditions. | |
| Publish labor law enforcement information, including labor inspectorate funding, penalties imposed and collected for child labor violations, and cases of worst forms of child labor identified and referred for criminal prosecution. | |
| Significantly increase the capacity of labor inspectors by providing additional training on international child labor standards and strengthen coordination between national and regional enforcement agencies. | |
| Increase funding for criminal enforcement agencies, provide criminal inspectors with training on laws related to the worst forms of child labor, and publish criminal law enforcement information, including the number of investigations conducted, prosecutions initiated, and perpetrators convicted for worst forms of child labor crimes. | |
| Investigate both domestic and transnational child trafficking cases, raise awareness of the criminality of child trafficking and worst forms of child labor, including the recruitment of children for armed conflict. Investigate and prosecute all perpetrators through the judicial system. | |
| Coordination | Clarify individual mandates for participants in the National Steering Committee to enhance inter-committee communication, coordination, and collaboration. |
| Provide adequate funding to coordinating bodies so that they may effectively coordinate activities related to the worst forms of child labor. | |
| Government Policies | Integrate child labor elimination and prevention strategies into the Education Sector Development Program, National Technical & Vocational Education & Training Strategy, and National Youth Policy. |
| Publish activities undertaken to implement key policies related to child labor on an annual basis, including the National Action Plan to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor. | |
| Social Programs | Repair and reopen school buildings, remove all armed groups from educational facilities, and protect the peaceful gathering of students and teachers for schooling. |
| Increase education access for all children by removing fees for uniforms, supplies, and food; ensure student safety en route to and from school; ensure a sufficient number of teachers, and sanitation facilities, especially for girls; and end the use of corporal punishment. Finally, accommodate language needs for children, especially the internally displaced children, who may not speak the local language. | |
| Provide training to teachers and ensure that schools are accessible so students with disabilities are able to attend classes. | |
| Ensure that the social services necessary to prevent and eradicate child labor, such as rehabilitation and reintegration centers, are available throughout the country, and develop or expand social protection programs to address child labor in all sectors, including in agriculture and domestic work. |
Anti-union practices among employers are common in Ethiopia, and the government has placed restrictions on the right to strike and to collective bargaining. As labor unions are integral to reporting and advocacy on the identification and prevention of child labor, violations of child labor laws and other labor abuses may go undetected.
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